The reconstructed consonants for Proto-Afro-Asiatic are p and b, t and d, and k and g. The Egyptian bw meaning place and the Semitic bi meaning in or from are believed to be from the reconstructed root *b- meaning foot or place (ELL, p.51). *iw- 'cow') (Eg., Sem. p-Atlantic-Congo Though estimations vary widely, it is believed by scholars to have been spoken as a single language around 12,000 to 18,000 years ago , that is, between 16,000 and 10,000 BC. [31] They are all spoken in southwest Ethiopia except for the Ganza language, spoken in Sudan. It rigorously applies, throughout, the established canon and techniques of the historical-comparative method. In Arabic, ti-ktib means she writes and katab-it means she wrote. innovation: 'fold over, bend'), (Eg., Sem. innovation: generalization of pl. Consider also the debate over the origins of the Afroasiastic or Afrasan languages and cultures, a linguistic group with a wide geographical distribution covering the Middle East and Northern. Proto-Cushitic Roots (Additional to those presented in Ehret 1987) Appendix 3. Meredith Holt This is in part due to Boroafrasian speakers breaking into groups such as Berber and Egyptian in North Africa and Semitic dialects in the Arabian Peninsula. Proto-Afroasiatic phonology has been the subject of several proposals for reconstruction that are not only different from each other, but also very divergent (cf. innovation: *agaw- 'cooked grain,' stem + *w n. [155], The degree to which the AA verbal root was triliteral (having three consonants) is debated. These classifications of language sub-sets vary according to different texts. ), (root #695 + *f iter.? The Afroasiatic languages (or Afro-Asiatic), also known as Hamito-Semitic,or Semito-Hamitic, and sometimes also as Afrasian, are a language family of about 300 languages that are spoken predominantly in the geographic subregions of Western Asia, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, and parts of the Sahara/Sahel. p-Potou-Akanic [75] Consequently, scholars have offered estimates for when Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken that range between 18,000 and 8,000 BCE. . [8][9] Other proposed names which have not found widespread acceptance among the linguistic community include Erythraic, Lisramic, Noahitic, and Lamekhite. [91] Typically, syllables only begin with a single consonant. [41] In the Coptic period, there is evidence for six major dialects, which presumably existed previously but are obscured by pre-Coptic writing; additionally, Middle Egyptian appears to be based on a different dialect than Old Egyptian, which in turn shows dialectal similarities to Late Egyptian. p-Nubian PSom-III. [54][73][9] The reluctance of some scholars to recognize Chadic as a member of Afroasiatic persisted as late as the 1980s. p-Bua *-kep-to cease, no longer function: 327. ; semantics: egg curves at every point? The results, while confirming some previous views on proto-Afroasiatic (proto-Afrasian), revise or overturn many others, and add much that is new. [191], The Cushitic and Chadic numeral systems appear to have originally been base 5. The languages of what is now Afro-Asiatic occupy a "vast area that stretches from Morocco to Arabia" (Dalby, p.6). Bomhard postulates that from Proto-Afroasiatic (henceforth PAA), Chadic was the first to break off. p-Kuliak (Ik) [196][164] Such cognates tend to rely on relatively simple sound correspondences. The main quality of Afro-Asiatic is that it "cuts across usually perceived racial boundaries" (Dalby, p.6). [28], Chadic languages number between 150 and 190, making Chadic the largest family in Afroasiatic. South Bauchi [40] Militarev associates the speakers of Proto-Afroasiatic with the Levantine Post-Natufian Culture, arguing that the reconstructed lexicon of flora and fauna, as well as farming vocabulary indicates that Proto-AA must have been spoken in this area. . [68] In 1969, Harold Fleming proposed that a group of languages classified as Cushitic by Greenberg were in fact an independent "Omotic" language family, a proposal that has been widely accepted but remains controversial. [101] The Omotic forms of the personal pronouns differ from the others, with only the plural forms in North Omotic appearing potentially to be cognate. [21] They are often considered to constitute a single language with multiple dialects. Answer: Semitic languages are a branch of the Afroasiatic language family, which includes over 400 languages spoken across much of Africa and the Middle East. Ayere-Ahan The Sumerian and Etruscan languages, usually regarded as language isolates, are thought by some to be Nostratic languages as well. suff. It also fully incorporates the most up-to-date evidence from the distinctive African branches of the family, Cushitic, Chadic, and Omotic. [29], There are about 30,[34] 50,[35] or 70[36] Cushitic languages, spoken around the Horn of Africa and in Sudan and Tanzania. FOR SALE! [156], There is no agreement about which tenses or aspects Proto-Afroasiatic might have had. WCh WOT Published online by Cambridge University Press: 27 June 2016 Alan S. Kaye Article Metrics Save PDF 2.11. * "Revising the Consonant Inventory of Proto-Eastern Cushitic," Studies in African Linguistics 22, 3 (1991): 211-275. Due to isolation, Icelandic has changed the least and is most similar to Old Norse, and therefore probably also to Proto-Germanic. London: Routledge, 1990. [23] In the past, Berber languages were spoken throughout North Africa except in Egypt;[24] since the 7th century CE, however, they have been heavily affected by Arabic and have been replaced by it in many places. The modern word "Hebrew" is derived from the word "Ivri" (plural "Ivrim"; English: Hebrews), one of several names for the Israelite (Jewish and Samaritan) people. [186] Within the Semitic language family, Lipiski counts four different roots meaning "one". innovation: addition of *b extend., imputing meaning 'to count'), to show, bring to (ones) notice or attention, (Ch., Berber, and Eg. Some features observed in most or all Afroasiatic languages include: It remains unclear what word order Proto-Afroasiatic had. [101][a] The emphatic consonants are typically formed deeper in the throat than the others;[99] they can be realized variously as glottalized, pharyngealized, uvularized, ejective, and/or implosive consonants in the different branches. There is no information on whether Egyptian had tones. [2] With the exception of its Semitic branch, all branches of the Afroasiatic family are exclusively native to the African continent. [166] There is a general pattern in which n- is used for the first person plural, whereas t- is used for all forms of the second person regardless of plurality or gender, as well as feminine singular. This original biblical genealogy reflected political rather than linguistic realities: thus the Canaanites are descendants of Ham, although their language is closely related to Hebrew, and the Elamites are descendants of Shem, although their language is not related to Hebrew at all. ); to reach out, (only C. reflexes imply 2nd form with reconstructed *a), to remove (from surface), pull, tear, or scrape off, to grumble, sigh, make sounds of complaint, (Eg., Sem. ; SC semantics: early beads were made of shell), (root of #48 + *c extend. [106] The most widespread constraint is against two different labial consonants (other than w) occurring together in a root, a constraint which can be found in all branches but Omotic. He showed that, generally, any consonant from one of these groups could combine with consonants from any other group, but could not be used together with consonants from the same group. >I find it odd how Semitic is still Afroasiatic even though it's tied to a non-E haplogroup Egyptian and Semitic are both J. Cushitic is T and Chadic is J/R1b-V88. Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary. [26] Egyptian is usually divided into two major periods, Earlier Egyptian (c. 3000-1300 BCE), which is further subdivided into Old Egyptian and Middle Egyptian, and Later Egyptian (1300 BCE-1300 CE), which is further subdivided into Late Egyptian, Demotic, and Coptic. As the Afroasiatic languages tend to be the tongues with the longest and oldest historical record, there are not many that can beat the Proto-Afroasiatic. [173] While some scholars posit an AA origin for this form, it is possible that the Berber and Cushitic forms are independent developments,[130] as they show significant differences from the Egyptian and Semitic forms. innovation: integration of *t dur. innovation: move > move toward), (probably demon., root #767+ *l n./adj. Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian . innovation: semantic narrowing to hitting with the hand), (probable *tliiz-, adj. Afroasiatic. p-Fula-Sereer sing. p-Gbaya London, Bloomsbury, 1998. : *itsim-), (2nd root shape: possible old tr. Gule SOm stat. [198] Andrzej Zaborski refers to Orel and Stolbova's reconstructions as "controversial", and Ehret's as "not acceptable to many scholars". i, u) and a low vowel (a) in verbal forms is usually described as one of the main characteristics of AA languages: this change codes a variety of different functions. One hypothesis places it in the Levant, as the language of the Natufian hunter-gatherers who were the first to adopt a farming lifestyle more than 10,000 years ago. reflex), (root #723 + *x extend. The Afroasiatic language family is thought to have originated in the Horn of Africa and the Arabian Peninsula around 15,000 years ago. innovation: shift to outflow of water, not from body; root *-sa- seen in #540 + *t dur. [89] Igor Diakonoff argues that the requirement to begin with a vowel goes back to Proto-Afroasiatic. Three dialects emerged (Omotic, Cushitic, and Chadic) from the main one and this left Boreafrasian, the source of Berber, Egyptian and Semitic (Dalby ,p. 6). crcst test prep; crcst free test questions; paid test; crcst exam prep notes; subscribe These three groups are classified as being in Africa while Afro-Asiatic is listed under the term Eurasia (Atlas, p.74). redup. >>14700332 A main characteristic of Afro-Asiatic languages is the use of vowel changes in word formation. p-Igboid Dictionary - Vladimir E. Orel 2015-11-02 This dictionary is a fundamental source of information on the extinct proto-language of the ancient Hamito-Semites, the Proto-Hamito-Semitic language, and . [30] For most branches, the first person pronouns contain a nasal consonant (n, m), whereas the third person displays a sibilant consonant (s, sh). Among the countries included in this language family are: Chad, Niger, Nigeria, Sudan, Egypt, Algeria, and Ethiopia. Lafofa, p-Afroasiatic in *n, as also in #323), (possible V reconstructions: *a, *aa, *e, or *o), (Sem., Eg., Ch. shared innovation: *als-/*ils- 'tongue': *a-/*i-attrib. Kadu Pr. ; semantics: flow out bit-by-bit), *-man-/*-mun-, *-ma-/*-mu-, *-ma-/*-mu-, (root #572 + *w inchoat. [26] The second is the Guanche language, which was formerly spoken on the Canary Islands and went extinct in the 17th century CE. Traditionally, the Hausa subject pronouns have been compared to the prefix conjugation. In this interpretation, a contrast existed between. p-Cangin [154] In Semitic, Egyptian, Berber, and some Chadic languages, verbs have no inherent vowels at all; the vowels found in a given verb are dependent on the vocalic template. The construct state is used when a noun becomes unstressed as the first element of a compound, whereas the pronominal state is used when the noun has a suffixed possessive pronoun. [195] Writing in 2004, John Huehnergaard notes the great difficulty in establishing cognate sets across the family. [130][164] In Akkadian, Egyptian, Berber, and Cushitic this forms a "stative conjugation", used to express the state or result of an action; the same endings as in Akkadian and Egyptian are also present in the West Semitic perfective verb form. [20], There are between 40 and 80 languages in the Semitic family. Berkeley: University of California Press. Nara [108] Such rules do not always apply for nouns, numerals, or denominal verbs, and do not affect prefixes or suffixes added to the root. [17] The name refers to the fact that this is the only major language family with members in both Africa and Asia. [133], A widespread pattern of gender and number marking in Afroasiatic is a consonant N for masculine, T for feminine, and N for plural. [152], A widely attested feature in AA languages is a consonantal structure into which various vocalic "templates" are placed. This can be found in Semitic, Egyptian, Beja, Berber, and Chadic. Thanks for viewing our Ebay listing! p-Surmic Bendi [65] He did not include the Chadic languages, though contemporary Egyptologist Karl Richard Lepsius argued for the relation of Hausa to the Berber languages. [121] Such scholars postulate that tones developed to compensate for lost or reduced syllables, and note that certain tones are often associated with certain syllable-final consonants.[125]. [83], A significant minority of scholars supports an Asian origin of Afroasiatic,[78] most of whom are specialists in Semitic or Egyptian studies. Afroasiatic (Afro-Asiatic), also known as Afrasian or Hamito-Semitic, Semito-Hamitic, or Erythraean is a large language family of about 300 languages that are spoken predominantly in the Middle East, North Africa, the Horn of Africa and parts of the Sahel. Of all of the languages in the Afro-Asiatic line, Arabic is the most widely spoken language, stretching from Western Africa to the Middle East (ELL, p.51). 28 July 1999. innovation: *-VC- v. stems > *-CV-), (Eg., Sem. alternative feminine endings *-ay/*-y; corresponding vowel templates for verbal conjugations) which can be reconstructed for a higher-order proto-language (provisionally called "Proto-Berbero-Semitic" by Kossmann & Suchard (2018) and Van Putten (2018)). Mimi-N [90], Syllable weight plays an important role in AA, especially in Chadic; it can affect the form of affixes attached to a word. BLACK ATHENA: THE Afroasiatic Roots of Classical Civilization (The Fabrication, - $16.27. > *itsan-; Omotic innovation: stem + *m n. PROTO-AFROASIATIC PHONOLOGICAL SYSTEM One of the most significant characteristics of Afroasiatic consonantism is the system of triads found in the stops and affri- cates -- each series (except the lateralized affricates) contains three members: a voiceless (aspirated) member, a voiced member, and a glottalized (that is, ejective) member. p-Tuu p-Jukunoid innovation: 'grow' > 'live,' whence Eg. The Atlas of Languages. [140] Some languages in AA have a marked nominative alignment, a feature which may date back to Proto-Afroasiatic. [47] Other scholars have questioned whether it is Afroasiatic at all, due its lack of several typical aspects of Afroasiatic morphology. It's impossible to tell exactly how old Proto-Afroasiatic is, or where it was spoken, but there are a few ideas. into stem), to take (bit of food or drink) into the mouth, (* is required by derived noun, root #641 following), (Eg., Sem. The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics. For other uses, see, Distribution of the Afro-Asiatic languages, Similarities in grammar, syntax, and morphology, Common derivational and morphological processes, Consonantal root structures and verbal forms, Some scholars argue that on the basis of Coptic that Egyptian had neither "emphatic consonants" nor a phonemic distinction between voiced and voiceless consonants. except for Semitic, which is also spoken in the Middle-East and Malta, all branches of the (root #311+old Afroasiatic pl. *y: adjective suffix: 3. Diamond and Bellwood adopt Militarev's ( 2) solitary counterclaim of proto-Afroasiatic cultivation. Dogon [54] These five or six branches remain the academic consensus on the family. The name Hamitic originates from Ham, one of the sons of Noah. [68] On the other hand, the classification relied on anthropological and racial features, such as skin color, hair type, and lifestyle. Proto-Afro-Asiatic: *abaw/y- Meaning: a k. of plant Semitic: *abVw- 'reed, papyrus' Egyptian: wb 'root', cf. [99] In Cushitic, the Ethiopian Semitic language Tigrinya, and some Chadic languages, there is no underlying phoneme [p] at all. Roots Beginning with P and B - Oleg Linkohr 2020-03-15 . [15] Mller assumed that there existed a distinct "Hamitic" branch of the family that consisted of Egyptian, Berber, and Cushitic. [124] Other scholars argue that Proto-AA had a pitch accent and some branches subsequently developed tone. show more The Proto-Afrasian Phonological System Unlike the comparative-historical study of the Indo-European languagefamily, which has a long history, the comparative-historical study of the Afrasian language familyis still not far advanced, though enormous progress has been made in recent years. West Semitic brought forth such languages as Canaanite, Aramaic, Hebrew, and Arabic (EL, p.906). [107] Another widespread constraint is against two non-identical lateral obstruents, which can be found in Egyptian, Chadic, Semitic, and probably Cushitic. [3] The phylum has six branches: Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, Egyptian, Semitic, and Omotic. [120] Ronny Meyer and H. Ekkehard Wolff instead propose that Proto-Afroasiatic may have had no vowels as such, instead employing various syllabic consonants (*l, *m, *n, *r) and semivowels or semivowel-like consonants (*w, *y, *, *, *, *h, *, *, *, *h) to form syllables. ; short vowel required by derived verb #399), calabash (used as container, utensil, etc. [31], A majority of specialists consider Omotic to constitute a sixth branch of Afroasiatic. Ekoid It is, rather, a comparison of Proto-Indo-European with Proto-Afroasiatic. [141] However, the number and types of cases varies across AA and also within the individual branches. Origins, Migrations, and Language Contacts. Oko [15] The association between Africans and the Biblical Ham dates back to at least Isidore of Seville (6th century CE), and earlier 19th-century scholars had vaguely spoken of "Hamian" or "Hamitish" languages. [65] In 1844, Theodor Benfey first described the relationship between Semitic and the Egyptian language and connected both to the Berber and the Cushitic languages (which he called "Ethiopic"). *kns-loins: 326. [77][127] Berber, and Egyptian, and most Semitic languages are verb-initial languages, whereas Cushitic, Omotic and some Semitic subgroups are verb-final languages. innovation: narrowing of meaning to tr. Aunque las estimaciones varan ampliamente, los eruditos creen que se hablaba como un solo idioma hace entre 12.000 y 18.000 aos (12 a 18 kya ), es decir, entre 16.000 y 10.000 a . *y: attributive noun and attributive deverbative suffix: 2a. Each aspect of these reconstructions is substantiated in detail in an extensive etymological vocabulary of more than 1000 roots. The speakers of Boreafrasian migrated north to an arid Sahara climate, then eventually pushed on west and east. The other three are very closely related and it is not hard for, say, a Dane to learn to understand a Swede. This page was last edited on 28 August 2022, at 11:13. [89] In Cushitic and Chadic languages, a glottal stop or glottal or fricative may be inserted to prevent a word from beginning with a vowel. [40] Egyptian is first attested in writing around 3000 BCE and finally went extinct around 1300 CE, making it the language with the longest written history in the world. [27] The first is the Numidian language, represented by over a thousand short inscriptions in the Libyco-Berber alphabet, found throughout North Africa and dating from the 2nd century BCE onward. suff. While there is no consensus among historical linguists concerning the original homeland of the Afroasiatic family or the period when the parent language (i.e. [11] Because the term "Afroasiatic" could be taken to mean that the family includes all the languages of Africa and Asia, the term "Afrasian" is sometimes used instead; this name was proposed by Igor Diakonoff (1980) and is mostly used by Russian scholars. Bijogo p-Central Khoisan This language family has now been renamed Afro-Asiatic, because this term is less culture specific (Dalby, p.6). There is also some evidence from. US$62.00 (softcover). [48] The oldest written attestations of Semitic languages come from Mesopotamia, Northern Syria, and Egypt and date as early as c. 3000 BCE. 'to come so close as to brush against'), (Eg., Sem. Africa is divided by geographical features, including the Sahara desert and the Ethiopian mountains. Dictionary of Languages. innovation: 'lift' > 'carry', (Eg., Sem., Cush, shared innovations: *su, *usu 'he'; *si, *isi 'she': see Chap. Bariba [183], Another factor making comparisons of AA numeral systems difficult is the possibility of borrowing. [136] These so-called "internal a" or "broken" plurals are securely attested in Semitic, Berber, Cushitic, and Chadic, although it is unclear if the Chadic examples are an independent development. shared innovation: n. for 'clay'), great (especially in size but also in number), (Ch., Eg., Sem. [183][184] In the Chadic family alone, there are two different roots for "two,"[185] and Berber and Semitic likewise have two different branch-internal roots for "two". Root Structure Patterning in Proto . [134] A system K (masculine), T (feminine), and H (plural) can be found in Cushitic, Chadic, with masculine K also appearing in Omotic. Proto-Afroasiatic is a language and NOT an ethnicity: Proto-Afroasiatic language - Wikipedia There is no proof where the Afroasiatic languages originated, but the oldest Afroasiatic language writing has been found in Egypt and dated 6000 years. The most up to . p-Chadic Kim as denom. [66], Meinhof's version of the "Hamitic theory" remained prevalent until the 1940s, when it was definitively disproved by Joseph Greenberg. with pre-PAA root *way thus having been a n. or adj. [122] In some Chadic and some Omotic languages every syllable has to have a tone, whereas in most Cushitic languages this is not the case. [142][143] Zygmont Frajzyngier states that a general characteristic of case marking in AA languages is that it tends to mark roles such as genitive, dative, locative, etc. ), (root seen also in #984 + *n non-fin. [49], There there are also other proposed branches, but none has so far convinced a majority of scholars:[7]. [30] A common characteristic of AA languages is the existence of a special set of "independent" pronouns, which are distinct from subject pronouns. innovation: n. 'morning' by addition of *r n. p-Nilo-Saharan [138][177] Christopher Ehret argues for its presence in Proto-Afroasiatic and for its attestation in some form in all branches, with a shape -*ay in addition to -*iy in some cases. shared innovation: 'raise' > 'lift, pick up'; probable further Ch., Eg., Sem. p-Bantu (Swadesh list) p-Koman p-Nilotic (p-E. Niloticp-S. Nilotic) 1995. [34], The Egyptian branch consists of a single language, Ancient Egyptian, which was historically spoken in the lower Nile Valley. [180] Also common are dependent/affix pronouns (used for direct objects and to mark possession). [40] Coptic is the only stage written alphabetically to show vowels, whereas Egyptian was previously written in Egyptian hieroglyphs, which only represent consonants. [117] In the different languages, central vowels are often inserted to break up consonant clusters (a form of epenthesis). It rigorously applies, throughout, the established canon and techniques of the historical-comparative method. [82] Likewise, all Semitic languages are fairly similar to each other, whereas the African branches of Afroasiatic are very diverse; this suggests the rapid spread of Semitic out of Africa. (Though I found no mention of the origin of Semito-, it is possible that this name comes from Shem, another son of Noah). [159] The Egyptian verbal system diverges greatly from that found in the other branches. Theodor Benfy found that Egyptian and Semitic languages were similar in 1844, and he classified them under the Semito-Hamitic language family. ; semantics: from closed- to open-ended action), to be wrong, bad, ill; do or function wrongly, (Eg., Ch. Continue Reading 5 Brian Collins Semitic speakers moved into the Fertile Crescent and "emerg[ed] into history" by bringing Akkadian (a Semitic language) into what is now Iraq, a previously Sumerian-speaking area (Dalby ,p6). [112] Greenberg divided Semitic consonants into four types: "back consonants" (glottal, pharyngeal, uvular, laryngeal, and velar consonants), "front consonants" (dental or alveolar consonants), liquid consonants, and labial consonants. There was additional language contact within the Afro-Asiatic family when Arabs invaded Egypt in 640 A.D. Coptic, a daughter language of ancient Egyptian, had flourished until that time but was replaced eventually by Arabic (Voegelin ,p13). [38] The oldest text in a Cushitic language probably dates from around 1770. The only group with an African origin is Ethiopian Semitic. p-Maban innovation: narrowing of meaning to particular kind of joining, by sewing), to split in two, split one from the other, (proposed source: #502, with regular PAA * > PBA *n; Eg., Berber, Sem. Our assessments, publications and research spread knowledge, spark enquiry and aid understanding around the world. the ancient Egypto-Semitic evidence. [121] This structure is particularly visible in the verbs,[153] and is particularly noticeable in the triliteral Semitic verb. [48] Today, Semitic languages are spoken across North Africa, Western Asia, and the Horn of Africa, as well as on the island of Malta, making them the sole Afroasiatic branch with members originating outside Africa. ), (Berber, Eg. Dalby, Andrew. Proto-Afro-Asiatic is of great antiquity; experts tend to place it in the Mesolithic Period at about 15,000-10,000 bce. p-Cushitic In Cushitic and Semitic, nouns exist in the "free state" or the "construct state". ), to get up to leave, start out, come or go forth, (Eg., Sem. [15] Hamitic was coined by Ernest Renan in 1855, to refer to languages that seemed similar to the Semitic languages, but were not themselves provably a part of the family. FOR SALE! Akpes [29] The Chadic languages are typically divided into three major branches, East Chadic, Central Chadic, and West Chadic. in *n, as also in #210), (Sem., Eg. p-Khoe [76], There is no consensus where the original homeland (Urheimat) of the first Afroasiatic speakers was located. p-Oti-Volta (p-E. Oti-Voltap-C. Oti-Volta) North Germanic includes Icelandic, Swedish, Danish and Norwegian. Fifteen are glossed as names of plants or loose categories of plants. Proto-Chadic reconstruction is in its infancy, Proto-Cushitic is even less developed, and according to Glottolog it's not demonstrable that Omotic languages are even related to each other, let alone as part of Afro-Asiatic. innovation: as synonym for #505), (vowel reconstruction uncertain: PAA *u, *ee, or *oo are also possible here; contrary to earlier views, this is surely a distinct root from #503), (Eg., Sem. V. V. ven. common genetic origin of Proto-Indo-European and Proto-Afroasiatic differ considerably from the assumptions made in other works on . p-Grassfields There is no consensus regarding the location of the Proto-Semitic Urheimat; scholars hypothesize that it may have originated in the Levant, the Sahara, or the Horn of Africa, and the view that it arose in the Arabian Peninsulahas also been common historically. >>14700322 >Proto-Semitic language contact with PIE implies the Semitic languages themselves come from J Caucasians. as EL). p-Upper Cross River p-Aroid Proto-Nostratic would have been spoken between 15,000 and 12,000 BCE, in the Epipaleolithic period, close to the end of the last glacial period. p-Ogoni p-Daju [99] Various Semitic, Cushitic, Berber, and Chadic languages, including Arabic, Amharic, Berber, Somali, and East Dangla, also exhibit various types of vowel harmony. Natioro Central Sudanic (p-Central Sudanicp-Sara-Bongo-BagirmiSinyarBirrip-Mangbetu) [131] This sex-based gender system is widely agreed to derive from Proto-Afroasiatic. [137][d] Another common method of forming plurals is reduplication. [105], Restrictions against the co-occurrence of certain, usually similar, consonants in verbal roots can be found in all Afroasiatic branches, though they are only weakly attested in Chadic and Omotic.

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